They have more schooling than men, but graduate in careers which pay lower incomes; their participation in the job market increases every day, but they still earn less and move slowly towards formalization of work; they have found their position among heads of households, but, even among their own peers, experience significant regional and ethnic differences, which eventually reinforce gender inequalities still faced by women in Brazil.        

All these realities are presented by Gender Statistics - An analysis of the 2010 Population Census,  produced by IBGE in partnership with the Secretariat for of Policies for Women (SPM), and the Directorate of Policies for Rural Women and the Quilombolas, of the Ministry of Agrarian Development (DPMRQ/MDA). The publication presents indicators about population aspects (including families and migration), disability, housing, education, job market and income. Besides the analysis by sex, Gender Statistics also approaches are color or race, urban or rural housing units and age groups, among other topics. All the data presented in the National System of Gender Information (SNIG), which gathers data from the 2000 and 2010 Population Censuses, even those at municipal level, are available at

https://www.ibge.gov.br/apps/snig/v1/.

Between 2000 and 2010, the proportion of women with at least one child decreased in younger age brackets. In 2010, 37.3% of the 50.0 million families (formed by one or more nuclear families) who lived in private housing units had women as their head of household and their contribution to the household income was 40.9%, on the average.  Out of the existing 57.3 million permanent private housing units in 2010, 38.7% had women as their head.

As for education, the percentage of youngsters aged 15 to 17 who were taking high school (as appropriate at their age) was 42.4% among men and 52.2% among women.  The proportion of youngsters aged 15 to 17 who were only working was twice as high among men (7.6%) in comparison with women (4.0%). The proportion, in the same age bracket, of persons who were neither working or studying was 12.6% among women and 9.1% among men.

In terms of work, between 2000 and 2010, the activity rate changed from 79.7% to 75.7% among men and from 50.1% to 54.6% among women. However, the increase of work formalization among women (from 51.3% to 57.9%) was lower than among men (from 50.0% to 59.2%). In 2010, 30.4% of the women aged 16 and over did not earn income, versus 19.4% of men. Women had the biggest real increase of average income from all sources when years 2010 and 2000 are compared (120%), but differences remain big: they earn an average 68% of men’s salary.

The publication and the complete data of Gender Statistics - An analysis of the 2010 Population Census results are available at

www.ibge.gov.br/apps/snig/v1/.

Population, families and migration: proportion of young women with children decreases

The proportion of women 15 to 19 years of age with at least one live birth decreased from 14.8%, in 2000, to 11.8%, in 2010. In the same period, there was significant decrease among those aged 20 to 24 (from 47.3% to 39.3%), 25 to 29 (from 69.2% to 60.1%) and 30 to 34 (from 81.9% to 76.0%). In urban areas, in 2010, 11.1% of the young women aged 15 to 19 had had at least one live birth, whereas in rural areas this indicator was 15.5%. Among the ones aged 25 to 29, the proportion of women with at least one child was 57.9% in urban areas and 75.4% in rural ones .

In terms of differences by color or race, whereas 8.8% of the white women aged 15 to 19 had had at least one live birth, among black or brown ones this indicator was 14.1%, in 2010. This difference grew bigger in the groups aged 20 to 24 (31.9% of the white ones and 45.6% of the black or brown ones) and 25 to 29 (53.4% of the white women and 66.3% of the black or brown ones).

Women were head of 37.3% of households

Out of the 50,0 million families who lived in permanent private housing units in 2010, 37.3% were headed by a women. The head of household is, according to the criteria used, the person recognized as such by the other household members. This indicator rose slightly to 39.3% among families living in urban areas and fell significantly (24.8%) among those living in rural areas. Considering families with a black or brown head of household, 38.7% had a woman in this position.

Regarding family composition, the proportion of female heads of household was below the national average in families formed by a couple with a child (23.8%) or a couple without a child (22.7%). On the other hand, in families without a partner a d with a child, women made up the householder's majority (87.4%).

Female contribution to household income was 40.9%

The indicator used to analyze female contribution to monetary income was the average percentage of monetary income of women aged 10 and over, in relation to household monetary income.  In Brazil, this indicator was 40.9%, whereas among men the average contribution had been 59.1%, in 2010. For women dwelling in rural areas, the monetary contribution to total household income was slightly bigger (42.4%) in comparison with that of women living in urban areas (40.7%). Whereas in the Northeast the value reached 46.8%, it was the lowest in the Central West, 37.8%.

In families with a black or brown householder the indicator reached 42.0%; in families with a white householder the contribution of women was 39.7%. In families formed by couples, the average participation of female income was 33.5%, when there was no child, and 31.7% when there was a child in the family, whereas in single-parent families - a parent without a partner with at least one child - the indicator reached 70.8%.

Migration of men and women present differences in Major Regions

Information on migration made use of data from fixed-schedule internal migration, which compares the current place of residence with the place of residence of persons exactly five years before the 2010 Population Census date of reference. In the North Region, migration intensifies the concentration of men, for more men than women entered the country (113.9 men for each 100.0 women) and more women than men left (95.9 men for each 100.0 women). The Northeast was the only Major Region to present negative migration flows (701 thousand persons), and, proportionally, the proportion of men leaving this region surpassed that of women. In the South, Central West and Southeast Regions, there was positive migration flow, and the sex ratio of immigrants (entry) was bigger than that of emigrants (exit), resulting in bigger entry of men in relation to women.

Housing: presence of as heads of household increases 24.9% to 38.7% 

In 2000, there were 44.8 million permanent private households, among which 83.5% were urban.  Out of the total housing units, 75.1% had male, and 24.9%, female householders. In 2010, there were 57.3 million, out of which 85.9% were urban. Out of this total, 61.3% had male heads of household and 38.7%, female ones. In 2000, the proportion of housing units under male and female responsibility in urban areas was 72.7% and 27.3%, respectively, whereas, in rural areas, 87.6% of the householders were men and 12.4%, women.  In 2010, it was observed that, in urban areas, the difference between male and female presence (59.0% to 41.0%) was smaller than in rural ones (74.9% to 25.1% for men and women, respectively).

The distribution of responsibility by color or race of was balanced in the country as a whole (49.1% of white ones and 49.3% of black and brown ones). In urban areas this proportion was 50.9% for white men and 47.6% for black or brown ones.  In rural areas, however, the opposite takes place, with 38.5% of white persons and 59.3% of black or brown ones. In the specific distribution of female householders in urban areas, 42.8% declared to be white and 57.7% black or brown.

Inadequate sanitation affects 28.3% of urban housing units headed by women

Adequate urban sanitation was observed in housing units with simultaneous access to general water supply, sewer disposal or sceptic tank and direct or indirect garbage collection. In Brazil, in 2010, out of the total housing units headed by women, 28.3% had inadequate sanitation conditions. The percentage was bigger in the North (70.0%) and in the  Northeast Region 46.3%.  These proportions were 12.2% in the Southeast, 24.2% in the South and 44.4% in the Central West. In urban housing units headed  by men, this percentage was 29.0% in the country, that is, similar to that recorded for women-headed households.

In a universe of 160.3 million persons in urban areas, there were 77.3 million men and 83.0 million women in 2010. Dwellings with lack of sanitation adequacy had 49.1 million persons, representing 30.6% of that total. Among these, 50.9% were women. This number was subdivided into 9.3 million white women and 15.3 million black or brown ones.

18.9% of women in rural areas lived in housing units with "other types" of water supply

In the country, 18.9% of the women dwelling in rural areas lived in housing units with "other forms" of water supply (stored rainwater, water tank truck, rivers, weirs, lakes, etc.), 17.5% in housing units with "other types" of sewage disposal (dumped in rivers, lakes, seas, etc.) and 11.0% with "other forms" of disposing garbage (dumped in a junkyard, in a river, lake or in the sea, etc.)  In relation to water supply, women in the North Region depended more on rivers and lakes, whereas in the Northeast Region there is more dependence on water tank trucks and rainwater.  Women in the North and in the Northeast Region without access to water treatment or even artesian wells or streams make up 29.7% and 27.2%, respectively.  With reference to sewage systems, 35.5% of the women in the Northeast Region did not have access to sewage treatment, septic tank or even a rudimentary system.  In terms of garbage collection, the highlight is the Northeast Region, where 16.2% of the women lived in housing units where garbage was not collected, burned or buried.

Among women living in permanent private housing units, 22.1% of the black and brown ones did not have water and sewage treatment or access to artesian wells or streams.  This percentage for white women was 12.7%.  For sewage system, the difference between the proportions was similar:  20.0% and 13.2%, respectively.  

Education : among youngsters, illiteracy rate is higher among men

In 2010, men and women aged 15 and over presented similar illiteracy rates (9.1% among women and 9.9% among men).  The rate was bigger among women aged 60 and over (27.4%) compared to that of men at the same age bracket (24.9%).  This disadvantage for women is reflected in younger age groups.  In relation to the color or race of women, the occurrence of illiteracy faced more significant decrease among those black (from 22.2% to 14.0%), especially among black ones aged 15 to 29 (from 7.5% to 2.5%). The rates also fell, but not so significantly, among white women (from 8.6% to 5.8%) and brown ones (from 17.9% to 12.1%).

Percentage of teenagers aged 15 to 17 in high school increases to 47.3%

Between 2000 and 2010, the increase of the Brazilian education system led to the increase of school attendance the biggest increment occurred among women aged 4 to 5 years of age, whose attendance changed from 51.4 in 2000 to 80.1% in 2010. In the group aged 6 to 14 the percentage changed from 93.1% to 96.7% and, among youngsters aged 15 to 17, from 77.7% to 83.3%. Evolution was similar for men and women

The percentage of youngsters aged 15 to 17 who were taking the proper school grade for their age rose from 34.4% in 2000 to 47.3% in 2010. This rate of school attendance in high school for men was 42.4%, 9.8 percentage points below the figure for women (52.2%). From the total of approximately 4.9 million aged 15 to 17 years of age who attended high school, there was a biggger proportion of women (54.7%) if compared to men (45.3%).

Proportion of youngsters aged 15 to 17 who only worked was bigger among men

In 2010 the proportion of youngsters aged 15 to 17 who only worked was twice as big among men (7.6%) if compared to women (4.0%). In the urban area, 17.8% of the men and 13.2% of the women worked and studied, whereas in the rural area this percentage rose to 27.7% and 15.8%, respectively. There is a bigger proportion of women aged 15 to 17 who did not work or study (12.6%) compared to men (9.1%) and the difference by sex of this indicator reached 6.3 percentage points in the rural area. This situation is related to motherhood, since 56.8% of the teenagers this age who had had babies were out of school and of the job market, whereas 9.3% of those who had never hand babies were in the same condition.

The average rate of early school evasion (proportion of youngsters aged 18 to 24 who had not fisished high school and who were not studying) fell from 47.2% in 2000 to 36.5% in 2010. However, the rate in Brazil is almost three times higher as that of countries from the European Union, and the incidence of this rate is significantly higher among men. A significant number of youngsters aged 18 to 24 who did not finish high school left school after reaching that age group (21.2%). An even bigger proportion of them had left school without finishing elementary education (52.9%).

Women graduate in lower-income careers

In 2010, there was a bigger number of women among university students aged 18 to 24, representing 57.1% of the overall number attending high school in this age bracket. Considering the overall population in the aforementioned age bracket, 15.1% of the women were at higher education courses, versus 11.4% of men. As a result, the educational level of women is higher that that of men in the group aged 25 and over. The biggest percent difference by sex occurs in complete higher education, where 12.5% of the women finished undergraduate courses, versus 9.9% of men.

The general fields of study concentrating the biggest number of women aged 25 and over, "Education" (83.0%) and "Humanities and Arts" (74.2%) are exactly those with lower average monthly income among the careers of employed persons (R$ 1,811 and R$ 2,224, respectively). The difference remains, even when the proportion of women reaches that of men, for example in the field of "Social Sciences, Business and Law", from which women earned 66.3% of men's income.

Job market: activity rate rises among women

The activity rate shows the proportion of the population at active age (PIA, aged 16 or over) who is working or looking for a job. Between 2000 and 2010, this rate remained stable (from 64.5% in 2000 to 64.8% in 2010), presenting, however, changes in figures disaggregated by sex: from 79.7% to 75.7% among men and from 50.1% to 54.6% among women. Considering the age groups analyzed, the activity rate of men aged 16 to 29 accounted for the biggest increase between 2000 and 2010 (from 81.0% to 74.6%). This trend was also present among those aged 30 to 49 (from 91.9% to 88.8%), but not among groups 50 to 59 years of age (increase from 76.8% to 78.1%) and 60 and over (from 37.4% to 38.7%). Among women aged 16 to 29, activity rate increased more moderately (from 56.3% to 58.8%) than in the other age groups: from 61.1% to 68.1% in the groups aged 30 to 49 and from 39.0% to 50.2% among those aged 50 to 59, for instance.

The activity rate was unevenly distributed among white women (56.2%) and black or brown ones (53.1%) in 2010, although differences have increased in relation to 2000. There is a difference of 10.5 percentage points between the activity rates of women living in urban areas (56.0%) and in rural ones (45.5%), a behavior which was not equally present among men (76.4% and 72.2%, respectively). There is low participation of women in the job market of the ortheast Region (48.2%), when compared to that of other Major Regions. The rate is even smaller in rural areas (40%).

Increase of formalization rate is smaller among women

The rate of formalization in Brazil (proportion, among employed persons, of persons with a formal employment contract, military and civil servants and self-employed workers and employers who pay for social security) changed from 50.5% in 2000 to 58.6% in 2010. However, increase of formalization among women (from 51.3% to 57.9%) was below that observed among men (from 50.0% to 59.2%) a trend which is reproduced in all the age and color or race groups.

The advance of formalization was more significant among youngsters aged 16 to 29 (from 47.9% to 59.4%) and among black or brown workers (from 42.6% to 52.7% of the total) in both sexes. This increase was even bigger among young men (from 47.0% to 59.7%). Considering black or brown workers, the increase of formalization was slightly above that of white women (which changed from 56.8% to 64.3%). In the case of men this difference was more significant, with increase from 42.3% to 53.9% among black or brown persons and from 56.3% to 64.8% among white men.

The proportion of women with a formal employment contract rose from 32.7% in 2000 to 39.8% in 2010. This increase, however, was lower among men (from 36.5% to 46.5%). The difference between both sexes rose from 3.8 percentage points in 2000 to 6.7 percentage points in 2010.

The level of participation of domestic workers in the occupational structure of women fell between 2000 and 2010, having changed from 18.5% to 15.1% of the working ones. The decrease of the proportion of female domestic workers without a formal contract from 13.0% to 10.0%, together with the decrease from 5.5% to 2.1% of non-paid workers, were the two forms of participation in job relations which recorded the main declines considering women in the period analyzed. This situation was different in relation to men, who faced the biggest decreases in workers without a formal contract (from 20.9% to 17.1%) and own account workers (from 28.2% to 24.7%).

Black or brown women have lower level of schooling than white ones

Whereas white women are the majority among those with a formal contract (58.4%), black or brown women formed the biggest proportion of domestic workers with (57.0%) and without (62.0%) a formal employment contract. Color or race inequality among women can also be observed in the distribution of the employed population by level of schooling, which shows bigger participation of black or brown women without schooling or with elementary education (42.5%) in comparison with white women (28.2%). These differences are highly present in the distribution of schooling and, considering higher education, they favor white women (26.0%) over black or brown ones (11.2%). The level of schooling of women is above that of men, and the latter represent a bigger proportion of employed persons without instruction or with unfinished elementary education (45.5% versus 34.8% of women).

Daycare centers for children up to three influence mothers' employment population ratio

In 2010 the employment population ratio (ratio between the employed population and the working age population) of women with children up to three years of age who attended daycare centrs (65.4%) was higher than that of women whose children were not enrolled in these institutions (41.2%), or of those who had at least one child enrolled in this kind of institution (40.3%). The employment population ration for women who lived in urban areas and had all children up to the three years of age attending a daycare center was 19.6% percentage points above that observed for rural areas (47.3%).

Income: percentage of women without income (30.4%) is bigger than that of men (19.4%)

In 2010, 30.4% of the women aged 16 and over did not have any type of income, a percentage above that observed for the population overall in this age bracket (25.1%) and for men (19.4%). The biggest proportion of women is this condition is in the North Region (37.7%) and the smallest one in the South Region (24.6%). For women aged 16 to 24, the proportion of persons without income is 51.8%, whereas in the male population the percentage is 40.6%. In the elderly population, the percentage of women without income was reduced in the last few decades from 28.7% to 15.7%. In the North Region, the proportion of black or brown women without income reached 38.1%.

In 2000, the proportion of persons earning up to one minimum wage was 19.8%, being slightly bigger among women (20.8%). In 2010, these proportions rose to 29.8% and 33.7%. The lowest income combine sex, color or race and place, once 50.8% of the black or brown women in the Northeast region earn at least one minimum wage, as well as 59.3% of the women in the rural areas of the same Major Region.

Income inequality between the sexes remains high despite bigger increases among women

Besides the valuing of the minimum wage, there was real increase of average income from all sources in 2010/ 2000 comparison (120%), but the difference remains high: they earn an average of 68% of men's salary. Women had the biggest increase (12.0% in comparison with 7.9% of men) and the biggest increase occurred in the Central West Region (22.1%). The increase of female income partially reduced the disparities between the sexes, but that was not a nationwide change. In 2010, the average income was R$ 1,587 for men and R$ 1074 for women (67.7% of the male income). In the cities with more than 500 thousand inhabitants, income inequality between men and women is smaller in comparison with that of less populated cities. Almost all cities recorded decrease of income differences by sex between 2000 and 2010, except Porto Velho and João Pessoa.

Besides regional disparities, for the average income of persons in the Northeast (R$ 881) is 43% smaller than of those in the Southeast (R$ 1575) the racial component is relevant. The average income of black or brown women (R$ 727) corresponded to 35.0% of the average income of white men (R$ 2086). Women from rural areas earn the lowest incomes (R$ 480), a figure below the minimum wage in effect in the period (R$ 510).

In Brazil, the average income of the women earning the 20% highest income is R$ 3,367, which is 20.5 times above the average income of the 20% earning the lowest incomes. Regardnig men, this ratio is 14.1:1, which shows that the distribution of income among women is more uneven than among men. Income diferences by sex are most significant among the poorest 20% (45.3%). In this group, the biggest income gap between men and women is observed in the North Region (40.9%), and the smallest, in the South Region (71.9%).

Women earned 67.7% of men's income from all activities

Inequality between men and women, in terms of average income from all activities was smaller (67.7%) than when overall income (74.0%) was considered. The combined effect of sex and color or race disparities in the job market, measured by means of the ratio between the average income of black or brown women and the average income of white men was 41.0%. In the Southeast Region, double inequality in both respects is even higher (38.0%).

The average income of the employed population rises with the age for both sexes, as well as income differences by sex. On the average, young women 18 to 24 years of age earned 88.0% of men's income, whereas women aged 60 and over had income of 64.0% in comparison with men's in the same age group. The high percentage of women as domestic workers (15%) and the lower formalization rate in the job market explain, to some extent, the lower income earned by women, in spite of their higher level of schooling.